The use of space-based infrastructure to support life on Earth has become one of the successes of the industry. Whether it be the delivery of global communications, navigation using GPS, or remote sensing information to support the UN Sustainable Development Goals, satellites have become an indispensable part of our modern world. However, space is becoming increasingly crowded, and new approaches are required to mitigate the significant dangers of debris and collisions.

Crowded orbits

A new trend has emerged in the sector: the large-scale deployment of massive constellations of satellites in low Earth orbit to provide global communications, delivering data services even in remote locations. These services have traditionally been delivered by geostationary communications satellites from a distance of 36,000km above the Earth, which have the drawback of delays caused by the time taken for radio waves to propagate over these vast distances. In contrast, these new satellites operate at just 1,200km, providing communications comparable in speed and response times to terrestrial broadband. However, to provide these services at these lower altitudes requires ‘mega-constellations’ of thousands of satellites for continuous global coverage.

Such mega-constellations must consider the impact on the orbital environment. The growing problem of space debris has been much publicised in recent years by efforts to find ways of removing failed satellites, by the problems caused by anti-satellite weapons tests, and even by Hollywood through the visually impactful but technically questionable film Gravity. Failed satellites in most low Earth orbits continue to orbit the Earth for tens to hundreds of years, occasionally being hit by other orbiting objects and producing even more debris. Of the 23,000 objects regularly being tracked in orbit by radar, only around 15% are active satellites, the rest being space debris. New approaches are necessary to balance the need for space infrastructure against the threat of space debris.

A solution – very low Earth orbits

Satellites have traditionally been launched to orbits above the Earth’s residual atmosphere to avoid atmospheric drag limiting their orbital lifetime. Yet that same drag is potentially the long-term solution to the debris problem. In recent years there has been increasing interest in operating satellites in what is known as very low Earth orbit (VLEO). VLEO is defined as altitudes below which atmospheric drag has a significant impact on the design of satellites which operate there, and is generally considered to be orbital altitudes below 450km. One such satellite which operates in VLEO is the International Space Station, which must be periodically boosted to stop its orbit from decaying.

Operating at these lower altitudes has numerous benefits both for the services provided and for the design of the satellites themselves. For communications, the response time is quicker even compared to the new communications constellations, and for remote sensing, the resolution of the imagery taken is improved or smaller cameras can be used, reducing satellite size and cost. Operating within the residual atmosphere provides for a more benign radiation environment, while rockets can launch more payload to lower altitude orbits, reducing launch costs. But perhaps the most important benefit of all is that VLEO is a sustainable orbital regime. Satellites and debris objects alike are pulled from orbit within a short period unless drag is actively compensated. Dealing with drag is also the biggest hurdle to overcome while satellites are operational in VLEO.

Making VLEO commercially viable

The UK is at the forefront of developments to enable the commercially viable use of VLEO. The University of Manchester leads the DISCOVERER project, a European Commission-funded study to carry out foundational developments of several emerging technologies. These technologies include materials designed to reduce the atmospheric drag, active aerodynamic control to help control a satellite’s pointing, and a new form of propulsion which collects gas from the residual atmosphere to use as a propellant.

Yet the potential for these developments still needs to be nurtured if the UK is to realise the benefits of this head start. Policymakers can support the use of VLEO as a sustainable and resilient orbital environment in a number of ways.

Policy to support tech for VLEO

There is a need for policy to encourage the development of enabling technologies for VLEO satellites. Satellites are, and will continue to be, operated in VLEO; however, the commercial viability is currently questionable. New technology and research are required to enable sustained commercial operations. Funding is required to build on the foundations and to ensure the UK maintains its global lead in the area. Unfortunately, space technology development in the UK for university-developed technologies is poorly supported by UK Research and Innovation, with the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council shying away from supporting space technology development and the UK Space Agency focusing on industrial development. This must change if the technological progress made within universities is to be developed and exploited, effectively creating a level playing field for space technology development against other engineering disciplines.

International space policy changes

International space policy must come to an agreement to prioritise the use of VLEO. One could envisage a future where the vast majority of communications and remote sensing satellites are only licenced to operate in VLEO where satellite failures have little long-term consequence for the space environment.

This would allow higher orbits to be reserved for science, crewed activities, and space exploration. Launches into VLEO are already considered low risk by the Civil Aviation Authority, because of the limited potential damage to other space assets and therefore limited liability to both the space operator and government. However, restricting communications and remote sensing activities to VLEO would require international agreement.

Key international policy considerations

The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) was set up in 1993 to facilitate cooperation between states on how to tackle space debris, but the resultant non-mandatory guidelines are not sufficient and occasionally ignored. VLEO should become a specific discussion item in the IADC’s working group on space debris mitigation.

Mega-constellations of satellites need to be managed in a sustainable fashion to ensure the long-term accessibility of low Earth orbit and limit space debris. VLEO is a sustainable and resilient alternative to higher orbits, and has the potential to allow both business innovation to take place while limiting long-term impact. However, space policy needs to recognise the benefits of the use of VLEO, and mandate its use.

Dr Peter Roberts is a Reader in Spacecraft Engineering at The University of Manchester.

Disclaimer

Graphene Innovations Inc. Manchester (GIIM) is a company spun out from The University of Manchester led by alumnus and entrepreneur Dr Koncherry and based at the Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC). The new company plans to accelerate a full range graphene-based innovations, including the space habitat project.

The partnership with the GEIC enables GIIM to equip a private lab, which features a pilot advanced manufacturing facility to make and form pioneering components for the space habitat.

GIIM is part of the global group Graphene Innovations Inc. (GII), led by entrepreneur investors Tom Hirsch (CEO and Growth Officer) and Mark Diamond (Chairman). Dr Koncherry is Chief Technology Officer (CTO) for GII and has also taken up the post of CEO (UK, Europe and Middle East), for Manchester-based GIIM and in this role his portfolio will include his existing start-ups, including SpaceBlue (recycled rubber flooring) and Graphene Space Habitat Limited working in partnership with global architects Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) for design and engineering concept.

Plans are underway for a permanent base on the Moon and human missions to Mars. These missions will be challenging for crew members and supporting the search for ways to maintain physical and psychological wellbeing and promote high performance is key. Research from The University of Manchester offers valuable lessons for surviving in extreme conditions and, indeed, for everyday life.

Living in the extreme

Simulation and analogue studies are helping us understand coping with the challenges of living in extreme environments. Over the last decade, we have examined participants’ experiences, including conducting scientific fieldwork in some of the most inhospitable places on Earth, climbing mountains, crossing deserts, and training for and participating in space missions.

Research from The University of Manchester has provided insight to the motivations of people who choose extremes and how they prepare for and cope with stress. This knowledge is being used for the selection, training and mission support of astronauts and cosmonauts.

Along with Manchester Metropolitan University, we worked on a project focused on stress and coping in a long-duration space mission. Participants in the SIRIUS-21 simulation, run by NASA, ESA and the Russian Academy of Sciences, completed measures that allowed us to track experiences during a 240 day isolation mission in which they carried the same tasks as future space missions. As part of an ESA task force, we are drawing up recommendations for the design and delivery of simulation studies so future studies replicate the experience of a space mission accurately. In another study, we are helping NASA validate a survey tool for tracking and monitoring crew function, which could inform timely interventions that optimise performance and reduce risks in future space missions.

Supporting regulatory flexibility

A key finding from the research is how stress fluctuates during a mission. We asked expedition-goers to record their coping strategies, for instance, focusing on the present, talking to team members, or keeping their emotions to themselves.

Previous research suggested some coping strategies are better than others. However, results show experienced expedition-goers often have several coping strategies and engage in ‘regulatory flexibility’, where strategies are matched to particular stressors or combinations of stressors. This means that some apparently contradictory strategies – sharing or bottling up emotions, for instance – are not ‘good’ or ‘bad’ in themselves, but either may be appropriate depending on the context.

One of our projects is designed to support people with less experience of extreme environments to develop regulatory flexibility. Using an app we created – the ‘DRIFT application’ – expedition-goers track their mood, performance and experiences, and based on their data, the app suggests coping strategies, and videos of experienced expeditioners describing how they coped. Pilot testing indicated this was a valuable way of tracking emotional progress and accessing personalised support. Space missions will continue to track behaviour and wellbeing, and tools like DRIFT support interventions with real-time feedback and suggestions.

Lessons for lockdowns

This research can also be applied to everyday experiences. As the world locked down in 2020 to slow the spread of COVID-19, millions of people found themselves isolated and confined. Dealing with isolation and confinement is key to surviving and thriving in space, and although the physical context is very different, the psychosocial demands astronauts encounter aren’t so different to lockdown.

Fortunately, these studies of how people cope in extreme environments offers strategies we can all use. For instance, it can take a week or two for astronauts to adjust to their ‘new normal’, both when joining a new mission, and when leaving it. Their adjustment is helped by having routine and keeping busy, facilitating a sense of control and consistency. So although the initial stages of a lockdown can be stressful and uncertain, it’s useful to know this is usually temporary, and a routine can reduce stress and anxiety. It can also be comforting to know that low mood and a lack of motivation are common in isolated and confined conditions but can be alleviated – small celebrations can lift moods and foster a sense of togetherness.

Particularly in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, many people experienced high levels of fear and anxiety. We learn from people in extreme environments that a good way to avoid becoming overwhelmed is to focus on the most important, achievable, and immediate tasks.

One of the most damaging stressors in space is being in close proximity with the same people for long periods of time. Astronauts, in common with members of other ‘extreme’ teams, often agree to open and honest conversations, to resolve problems before they lead to tension and arguments. The same advice can be applied to isolating with others in lockdown.

Supporting frontline workers during the pandemic

During COVID-19, healthcare and other frontline workers faced a prolonged period working under unprecedented physical and psychological stress, and needed robust and practical guidance as quickly as possible. We established an informal working group of academics and practitioners, and worked with the NHS Response Team to identify requirements, producing a series of user-friendly, evidence-based briefs that were shared with first responders throughout the UK. Feedback was extremely positive and the work was promoted by international healthcare networks including the World Health Organisation and the Johnson & Johnson Institute. The briefs remain available and will continue to be updated. This contribution was possible because of extensive research on performance under stress, and our global network of collaborators.

Promoting wellbeing through adventure activities

Our work also supports public policy objectives through engagement with grassroots adventure communities that reach out to those under-represented in adventure activities. We’ve shared research with groups like Adventure Mind and the Women’s Adventure Expo to support and inspire people to step into adventurous activities, especially women, people from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds and minority ethnic communities, and those facing physical and mental health challenges. What constitutes an ‘extreme’ environment for some will seem ordinary to others: a weekend of wild camping, or a solo trip abroad. But all adventurers start somewhere, and overcoming fear of the unknown and building skills and confidence in increasingly challenging contexts is a vital component of developing resilience and improving mental health.

Information for policymakers

Although studying astronauts and other ‘extreme operators’ may initially appear relevant to very few people, our research highlights the value of adventurous activities to building life-skills and promoting psychological wellbeing. And, as climate change contributes to increasingly extreme conditions, our research will become increasingly relevant to everyday life.

Key policy considerations:

UK research efforts on coping in extreme conditions are currently underfunded and poorly coordinated, and few mechanisms exist to translate that research into practice. The UK Space Agency can only support a few small projects on human activity in space, and other funding, especially in the social sciences, is limited. More substantial funding is needed as a matter of urgency.

We need a vehicle through which to coordinate the production and translation of research to help us leverage the most benefit from studies. US scholars benefit from the NASA-supported Translation Research Institute for Space Health (TRISH), which develops, manages, and exploits human science research both on-orbit and on-Earth. Support for a similar centre in the UK, which coordinates the translation of human and social science findings from Earth to space and back again, could make a significant difference to developing evidence-based support, not just for astronauts, but for people from all communities.

Professor Emma Barrett OBE is Professor of Psychology, Security, and Trust at The University of Manchester, and Director of SPRITE+, the UKRI Digital Economy National Network for Trust, Identity, Privacy and Security. Her research and teaching interests are psychology and security, and the psychology of extreme environments. She is the co-author of Extreme: Why some people thrive at the limits (OUP, 2014).

Dr Nathan Smith is an Associate Professor of Security, Behaviour and Emerging Technology at Coventry University. His research is focused on workforce resilience and performance in extreme environments. Nathan is currently writing a book on human thriving in extremes for MIT Press.

2020 was a year of quiet, with much of the world staying indoors to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. 500km above us, however, the picture was very different – the low earth orbit (LEO) was busier than ever. In 2020, SpaceX launched more than 800 satellites to build a mega-constellation of 42,000 satellites, while in New Zealand, a country with no national space programme, a start-up company launched reusable rockets from its own launch pad. New concepts – such as vertical landings, 3D-printed rocket engines, and high-speed satellite communications – are driving a paradigm shift in the space industry. This once conservative industry funded by governments is transforming into an entrepreneur race. Survival in this highly competitive sector demands the accelerated implementation of emerging technologies.

Smart thermal control

Advanced materials with programmable functionalities will play a key role for overcoming challenges in the emerging space sector. At the National Graphene Institute (NGI), my group is working on two key areas where graphene-based devices provide unique adaptive capabilities. The first application is adaptive thermal management of satellites that experience temperature extremes in orbit. Currently available techniques are bulky and involve high power consumption, limiting the satellite’s power budget and increasing the payload cost.

In 2018, we published research results showing the possibility of adaptive thermal radiation from graphene-coated surfaces. Graphene is an electrically tuneable material, and our work demonstrates that, due to this multispectral tunability, it can enable dynamic thermal management of satellites in outer space.

To realise the potential of this discovery, we built a patent portfolio and created a spin-off company, SmartIR Limited, to commercialise a cost-effective solution that will enable satellites to regulate thermal radiation on demand. This technology will enable regulating satellites' temperature adaptively by changing the emissivity and reflectivity of its surface. Our current focus is on the testing and validation of this technology to meet the requirements of the space industry.

Smart antennas

One of the biggest innovations enabling high-speed satellite communications is the new generation of smart antennas which contain hundreds of programmable small antenna elements. Unlike old satellite dish antennas, these smart antennas can trace fast-moving satellites on LEO and seamlessly switch communication between them, picking up a new satellite as the previous disappears over the horizon. Many companies are now battling for this market using several different approaches, including liquid crystal materials and phased arrays. SpaceX, for example, uses costly phased array technology which is commonly used for military scale radar systems. The challenge is to achieve programmable antennas elements at a reduced cost. We have developed graphene-based smart microwave surfaces that can change their microwave reflectivity. The operation frequency of these antennas can be extended to terahertz frequencies, providing a much higher data rate. This will enable new antenna technologies, especially for high-speed communications between the satellites.

International collaborations

There is a promising future for adaptive materials in space applications. As an academic, I have significantly benefited from EU funding and our university's infrastructure for graphene research. This cutting-edge infrastructure is supported by the UK government and the European Regional Development Fund. Participation in the EU’s funding programme for research and innovation is vital to maintaining our competitiveness for emerging technologies. The recent delay in the UK’s participation leads to big uncertainties for the future of space research and development.

Attracting exceptional people

Cutting edge innovations require exceptional skills. The shortage of skilled people is the most pressing issue for R&D. Especially after Brexit, attracting European students and researchers has been very difficult due to the lengthy and expensive visa process. Although the government introduced a new immigration system, including the Innovator Visa and the fast-track Global Talent Visa, it is still far from being attractive for the best talents. Simplifying the immigration system for skilled workers will significantly improve attractiveness. Furthermore, we should invest in home-grown talents. This can be achieved by interdisciplinary graduate programmes such as Centres for Doctoral Training (CDT) for space technologies. These educational programmes will provide a steady pipeline of skilled talent to create and support local companies. In addition, quotas for international students in these programmes must be increased.

Sustainable space

As the space industry grows, its problems will grow as well. Astronomers have raised concerns about light pollution on ground-based astronomy due to the scattered light from satellites. Recently, SpaceX painted its new satellites to make them less visible; however, making them completely dark introduces new thermal management challenges. Adaptive optical materials could provide new solutions for the light pollution. Space sustainability is another emerging area of concern as space becomes increasingly congested. Collisions between satellites and space junk are already a concern, as demonstrated by the recent near-miss events between the Chinese Space Station and Starlink satellites. Minimising waste and finding solutions to space debris are some of the challenges material scientists need to tackle. Materials design and innovation need to be prioritised to tackle these growing concerns.

Prioritising funding

The UK government recently published the National Space Strategy outlining the goals and strategies for leadership in the emerging space sectors. There is much to do if the UK is to grow as a space nation and be an innovative and attractive space economy.

The critical decision is how to allocate resources between the expensive launching business and long-term Research and Development. Strategic investment in high-growth areas and R&D should be prioritised over the low margin yet expensive launching business.

Manchester has a strong position as a global leader in advanced materials innovation. Repurposing the infrastructure and investing R&D in advanced space materials will lead to the creation of new technologies. The Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC) and the Henry Royce Institute provide a unique innovation ecosystem to accelerate the process.

Coskun Kocabas is Professor of 2D Device Materials, The University of Manchester and National Graphene Institute. His research interests lie in the electronics, optical applications of 2D materials.

NASA’s Artemis program aims to return humans to the lunar surface by 2025, before establishing a sustained human presence on and around the Moon by the end of the decade. This so-called Lunar Gateway will then be used as a staging point for future missions to Mars. With estimated project costs approaching $100 billion, a criticism of this endeavour is the extremely high price tag, especially since the allocated public funds could be redirected to more pressing causes on Earth – such as funding the development and deployment of green technologies. However, the goals of space exploration and sustainable development aren’t necessarily misaligned.

The fruits of space exploration

Although NASA’s Apollo program came with a similarly high price tag, at $280 billion after adjusting for inflation, the program fuelled giant leaps forward for numerous technologies which still have a positive impact to this day. These technologies include solar cells, miniaturised computer processors, advanced insulation materials, fuel cells and compact cameras.

Another offshoot from the historical investment in space has been modern satellite technologies. Not only are communication satellites crucial for our modern way of life, but Earth observation satellites are a vital tool for combating climate change by monitoring discrepancies between actual and reported CO2, methane and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the monitoring of forestry, agriculture and other land use – a sector that accounts for 24% of global GHG emissions.

Sustainable technologies

Future extra-terrestrial colonies on the lunar and Martian surfaces will require an unprecedented degree of resourcefulness, circularity, and sustainability as a matter of survival. Almost every substance will have to be reused, repaired and recycled to maximise utility and minimise waste. There will be no disposable materials on Mars, and every piece of equipment will have to be ultra-reliable, since any chance of logistical resupply from Earth would be extremely costly and impractical. This notion of hyper-resourcefulness and circularity promises to result in offshoot technologies that will promote sustainable development on Earth.

Off-world construction materials and processes

One of the biggest unsolved challenges with sustained off-world human habitation is the need to develop viable construction materials and processes. Construction on Earth requires a multitude of diverse materials with complex supply chains, assembled by numerous specialists through laborious processes. Such an option is not available off-world, so new material technologies and construction methods will need to be developed.

Moreover, any habitat outside of Earth’s protective magnetosphere will require thick walls and ceilings to protect against solar and cosmic radiation. Given it currently costs over £1 million to send a brick’s worth of material to Mars, it’s not economically feasible to transport bulk construction materials from Earth. Instead, local resources – namely lunar or Martian soil (or regolith) – will need to be employed.

This regolith, which is a fine powder, will need to be transformed into a solid monolithic material to prevent erosion from high-velocity exhaust plumes (Lunar surface) and dust storms (Martian surface). Although several solutions to this challenge have been proposed, such as melting or sintering regolith into glassy bricks, most have serious flaws such as extremely high energy use, necessitating additional energy production capacity, or the need for heavy processing equipment – both of which would add significantly to launch mass and mission cost.

A promising solution lies in the emerging transdisciplinary sector of encompassing biotechnology and materials science. Several bio-based or living construction solutions have been proposed as relatively low energy, feasible methods for the stabilisation of extra-terrestrial regolith into construction materials. Researchers at The University of Manchester recently proposed a solution using human blood proteins and urine to bind regolith into a concrete-like material. Termed Astrocrete, the researchers are now investigating plant-based biopolymers as alternatives to human blood.

Given that the construction sector accounts for 39% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, any relatively green construction material technology developed for off-world habitats could potentially be employed as a sustainable alternative on Earth. This is particularly relevant in the light of COVID-19 recovery plans championed by the UK and other governments.

The UK’s National Infrastructure Strategy, published in November 2020, lays out a vision of new railway, roads and motorway junctions, and new energy infrastructure – much of it in the Midlands and the north of England. This was followed in March 2021 by the ‘Build Back Better’ plan for growth, which promises infrastructure projects delivered “better, greener and faster”, with infrastructure investment highlighted as “fundamental to delivering net zero emissions by 2050”. With similar plans from governments around the world, the UK – particularly the north-west of England – is in a unique position to nurture and export low-carbon, sustainable materials derived from space technologies.

The UK as a centre for green space technologies

The UK has a strong knowledge-based economy and is world-leading in the areas of space tech, materials science and biotechnology. The University of Manchester, which hosts the Henry Royce Institute for advanced materials research and innovation, as well as the Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub, is especially strong in these areas. These advantages make the UK, and especially Manchester, an ideal candidate to host the next Silicon Valley equivalent for off-world construction start-up companies and associated green technology offshoots.

Policymakers could promote the development of such an ecosystem, putting the UK in a good position to capitalise on the upcoming rush to develop and commercialise technologies associated with space habitation.

Other positive actions policymakers could take include:

Grants and other financial incentives to support academics with ‘hard tech’ business ventures; the long-touted ARIA body could take a leading role in this.

Encourage industry-academia collaborations and trans-disciplinary research through online platforms, subsidised conferences, showcases and other events.

Hosting competitions and prizes to help spearhead innovation and solve specific challenges.

Assist with communicating the benefits to the wider public, such as providing PR training to academics and recognising participation in outreach activities as important output for academics.

Dr Aled Roberts is a research fellow who specialises at the interface of materials engineering and biotechnology. He is based at the Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub within the Manchester Institute of Biotechnology.

Analysis and ideas on space research and policy, curated by Policy@Manchester

With special thanks to our contributors:

Dr Peter Roberts is a Reader in Spacecraft Engineering at The University of Manchester.

Dr Vivek Koncherry is visiting researcher at The University of Manchester and Co-founder and CEO (UK and Europe) of Graphene Innovations Inc. Manchester (GIIM), based at Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC).

James Baker is CEO of Graphene@Manchester and is a CEng and a Fellow of the RSA (the Royal Society for Arts, Manufactures and Commerce) and Fellow of IET.

Professor Emma Barrett OBE is Professor of Psychology, Security, and Trust at The University of Manchester, and Director of SPRITE+, the UKRI Digital Economy National Network for Trust, Identity, Privacy and Security. Her research and teaching interests are psychology and security, and the psychology of extreme environments. She is the co-author of Extreme: Why some people thrive at the limits (OUP, 2014).

Dr Nathan Smith is an Associate Professor of Security, Behaviour and Emerging Technology at Coventry University. His research is focused on workforce resilience and performance in extreme environments. Nathan is currently writing a book on human thriving in extremes for MIT Press.

Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics

Coskun Kocabas is Professor of 2D Device Materials, The University of Manchester and National Graphene Institute. His research interests lie in the electronics, optical applications of 2D materials.

Molly Silk is a doctoral researcher based at the Manchester Institute of Innovation Research at The University of Manchester. Her research examines Chinese space policy and diplomacy, and she is also interested in the impacts of science and technology developments on security and defence.

Kieron Flanagan is Professor of Science and Technology Policy at The University of Manchester. He has worked on all aspects of science, technology and innovation policy, and has a special interest in the international dimensions of science and technology.

Dr Aled Roberts is a research fellow who specialises at the interface of materials engineering and biotechnology. He is based at the Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub within the Manchester Institute of Biotechnology.

Thomas Harvey is a PhD student studying the occurrence of metal in lunar and meteorite samples to better understand the origin of their composition.

Katherine Joy is Professor of Lunar and Planetary Science at The University of Manchester, researching lunar and meteorite samples and using space mission data to understand geological processes on different planetary bodies.

All opinions and recommendations made by article authors are made on the basis of their research evidence and experience in their fields. Evidence and further discussion can be obtained by correspondence with the authors; please contact policy@manchester.ac.uk in the first instance.

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May 2022

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The opinions and views expressed in this publication are those of the respective authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Manchester.